Learning Objectives

•       Identify suitable land and prepare it correctly for energy crop production.

•       Recognize certified planting material and explain why it is essential for cassava, sugarcane, and sorghum.

•       Demonstrate correct planting techniques, spacing, and timing for each energy crop.

•       Identify at least two beneficial intercropping combinations and explain their agronomic value.

•       Identify at least one harmful companion crop and explain the risk it poses.

2.1 Land Selection and Preparation

Choosing the Right Land

The first and most important decision in crop establishment is selecting the right piece of land. Many farmers make the mistake of planting energy crops on marginal land that they consider too poor for food crops. While cassava and sorghum are tolerant of poor soils, this tolerance does not mean they thrive on exhausted, waterlogged, or rocky ground. Selecting good land from the beginning reduces input costs, increases yield, and improves the quality of your harvest all of which affect your income.

When selecting land for energy crop production, look for the following characteristics:

Land Preparation by County

Land preparation should be determined by the crop being grown, soil type, climate, topography, drainage conditions, erosion risk, previous land use, and available resources, not by region or county alone. The same county can contain multiple soil types, slopes, and microclimates, so farmers and extension officers should assess these site-specific factors directly rather than assuming a single method applies uniformly across a county.

Ripping and tillage depth in particular are crop-specific, not region-specific: different energy crops have different root architectures and moisture requirements, and tillage depth should be matched to the crop being planted regardless of where it is being grown.

The table below sets out recommended land preparation approaches based on soil and site conditions, and the crops they are typically suited to. Farmers should identify which conditions match their own land and apply the corresponding guidance.

Note: These conditions can occur in any county. Farmers should assess their own soil type, slope, drainage, and crop choice against this table, rather than relying on county identity alone to select a land preparation method.

2.2 Certified Planting Materials: Why This Matters

The decision about which planting material to use is, for cassava farmers in Kilifi in particular, the single most important decision in the entire farming cycle. Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD) and Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) are both transmitted through infected planting material meaning that if you plant a cassava cutting taken from a diseased plant, the disease is already in your new crop before the first leaf emerges. Symptoms may not appear until 3–6 months after planting, by which time you have invested months of labour, inputs, and land.

For sugarcane, certified seed cane must be sourced from KALRO-approved nurseries or licensed sugarcane seed cane producers. Planting uncertified seed cane risks introducing sugarcane smut and ratoon stunting disease, which spread through the cane's root system and cannot be eliminated once established without destroying the entire ratoon.

For sorghum, KALRO has released several improved varieties specifically suited to ELMECC counties: Serena and Hageen Dura 1 for grain production; Sugar graze for sweet sorghum ethanol feedstock. These varieties are certified by the Kenya Seed Company and available through registered agrodealers.

How to Verify Certified Planting Material

•       Ask the agrodealers or nursery for the KALRO certification tag or seed certificate. This tag includes a batch number, variety name, production date, and certifying officer's signature.

•       For RPT cassava seedlings, look for the distinctive tissue-culture appearance: small, uniform plants in polythene bags with clean white roots. Reject any seedlings with yellowing leaves, twisted shoots, or visible mosaic patterns on the leaves.

•       For sorghum seed, check the seed packet for the Kenya Seed Company logo, variety name, and germination rate (should be 85% or higher).

•       Never buy planting material from a fellow farmer unless that farmer can show you written proof that the material is from a certified source.

2.3 Planting Techniques by Crop

Cassava Planting (Kilifi, Nakuru)

The following is the step-by-step process for establishing a cassava crop using RPT seedlings or certified stem cuttings.

•       Land Preparation: Plough or hand-till to a depth of 25–30cm. Rake to remove large stones and roots. On slopes, create mounds 30cm high and 60cm wide, spaced 1m apart.

•       Seedling preparation: If using RPT seedlings in polythene bags, harden them off for 7–10 days before planting by placing them in partial shade outdoors. If using stem cuttings, cut sections of 25–30cm length from healthy, fully mature stems. The cut surfaces should show white or cream-colored wood, brown or hollow centres indicate disease.

•       Planting spacing: The standard spacing for cassava grown as an ethanol feedstock is 1 metre between plants within the row, and 1 meter between rows (1m × 1m), giving a plant population of 10,000 plants per hectare. This maximizes root yield per hectare while allowing adequate light and air circulation.

•       Planting technique: Dig a planting hole 30cm deep. Place the RPT seedling (still in polythene bag, remove the bag just before planting) into the hole and firm soil around it. If using stem cuttings, insert the cutting at a 45° angle into the soil so that at least two nodes (leaf attachment points) are buried. The top of the cutting should have at least two nodes above ground.

•       Timing: Planting should be timed according to the crop, local agro-ecological conditions and the availability of adequate soil moisture. In rain-fed systems, farmers should generally plant at or shortly after the reliable onset of the appropriate rainy season, which varies across regions, as a general guide, this typically provides 6 - 8 weeks of reliable rainfall during crop establishment before rains reduce. In irrigated systems, planting may take place throughout the year, subject to water availability, crop requirements, and other local conditions. In all systems, avoid planting during peak rainy periods when the risk of waterlogging is high.

Sugarcane Planting (Kisumu)

•       Select certified seed cane stools from KALRO-approved sources. Choose stems that are 8–12 months old, healthy, free of discolouration, and have clearly visible nodes.

•       Cut seed cane into setts (pieces) of 45–60cm length, each with at least 3 nodes. Treat setts with a 0.1% fungicide solution (Mancozeb or Iprodione) to prevent soil-borne disease infection.

•       Open furrows 25–30cm deep and 100–150cm apart (row spacing for out grower production). Place setts end-toend in the furrow at a slight overlap (about 5cm overlap between setts).

•       Cover setts with 5–8cm of soil. Do not bury deeper, deep planting delays sprouting and weakens first shoots.

•       Apply basal fertilizer (CAN or NPK 23:23:0) along the furrow at 50–80kg/ha before covering. Do not allow fertilizer to touch seed cane directly keep 10cm separation.

•       Timing: Plant sugarcane in Kisumu between April and June (long rains onset). In Nakuru, the September–October window suits sugarcane establishment for the highland conditions.

Sorghum Planting (Kajiado, Kisumu)

•       Prepare seedbed with minimum tillage (Kajiado) or standard ploughing (Kisumu). If using zai pits in Kajiado, dig pits 1–2 weeks before expected rainfall, fill with 2kg of compost per pit and wait.

•       Treat certified sorghum seed with a dry fungicide dressing (Thiram or Captan) immediately before planting to protect against soil-borne fungi.

•       Planting spacing: 75cm between rows × 25cm between plants within the row for grain sorghum (yielding approximately 50,000 plants/ha). For sweet sorghum grown for juice, reduce to 60cm × 20cm to increase stalk density.

•       Planting depth: 3–5cm in sandy soils; 2–3cm in heavier loam soils. Deeper planting in Kajiado's sandy soils is acceptable (up to 7cm) if soil is very dry.

•       Timing: Plant grain sorghum at the onset of rains (April in most areas; March in Kisumu lake region). Sweet sorghum for juice production should be planted 90–100 days before the planned harvest date for the processing facility.

2.4 Intercropping: Beneficial Combinations

Intercropping means growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. For bioenergy crop farmers, intercropping serves multiple purposes: it provides food security income while the main energy crop matures, it improves soil health, and it can reduce pest and weed pressure on the main crop.

2.5 Companion Crops That Harm Cassava

MODULE 3: SOIL HEALTH AND CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE

Module Overview

Duration: 3–6 hours (half-day session + 1-hour field practical on composting)

Target audience: Smallholder farmers, cooperative leaders, county extension officers

Gap Response: This module addresses knowledge gaps in soil fertility management, water resource management, and climate-adaptive agricultural practices identified through bioenergy sector training needs assessments.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, participants will be able to:

• Explain what soil health is, what causes soil degradation, and the main practices used to restore and maintain healthy soil.
• Identify general soil types relevant to energy crop production and describe their implications for crop choice and management.
• Construct a compost heap using locally available materials, following a step-by-step process, and explain when compost is preferable to synthetic fertilizer.
• Describe at least three climate-smart agriculture practices and explain how each contributes to resilient energy crop production.
• Define water harvesting, distinguish it from soil and water conservation, and identify techniques suited to their own farming context.

3.1 Understanding Soil Health

What is soil health?

Soil health refers to the continuing capacity of soil to function as a living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. Healthy soil supports crop growth not only through its physical and chemical properties (structure, nutrient content, pH) but also through the biological activity within it, the bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and other organisms that cycle nutrients, build soil structure, and suppress disease-causing organisms.

What leads to unhealthy soil?

Soil health declines through a combination of natural and human-driven processes, including:

• Loss of organic matter, through repeated cropping without replenishment, crop residue removal or burning, and lack of organic inputs.
• Erosion, from wind and water carrying away fertile topsoil, particularly on sloped or bare land.
• Compaction, from heavy machinery, livestock trampling, or repeated tillage at the same depth, which restricts root growth and water infiltration.
• Nutrient depletion, from continuous cropping without adequate replacement of nutrients removed at harvest.
• Salinization and poor drainage, particularly in irrigated or low-lying areas without adequate water management.
• Loss of soil biodiversity, often linked to the overuse of synthetic agrochemicals and the absence of organic matter to sustain soil organisms.

How to improve soil health?

Soil health can be rebuilt and maintained through a combination of practices covered in detail later in this module:

• Composting (Section 3.3) to restore organic matter and biological activity.
• Mulching to reduce erosion, moderate soil temperature, and conserve moisture.
• Crop rotation to break pest and disease cycles and balance nutrient use.
• Minimum tillage to protect soil structure and reduce erosion and organic matter loss.
• Integrated soil fertility management (Section 3.4), which combines organic and inorganic inputs based on soil testing and crop need.

3.2 Soil Types and Their Suitability for Energy Crops

Kenya's national soil information follows internationally recognized classification systems. The Kenya Natural Resource Atlas identifies 23 major soil groups nationally. The soil types most commonly associated with agricultural production and most relevant to energy crop farmers, include Ferralsols, Vertisols, Acrisols, Lixisols, Luvisols, Nitisols, Andosols, Cambisols, Fluvisols, Arenosols, and Regosols.

The table below summarizes the general characteristics of these soil types and their typical suitability for energy crop production. Farmers should confirm their specific soil type through local extension services or soil testing, since more than one type can occur within a single farm or county.

Farmers and extension officers should treat this table as a general guide. Local soil testing remains the most reliable way to confirm suitability for a specific energy crop.

3.3 Composting: Methods and Step-by-Step Construction

Compost is one of the most cost-effective soil amendments available to smallholder farmers. Unlike synthetic fertilisers, compost improves soil structure, increases microbial activity, and releases nutrients slowly over 3–6 months. A well-made compost heap costs little beyond labour and time.

Common Composting Methods

• Heap composting: organic material is piled above ground in alternating layers and turned periodically. This is the most widely used method among smallholders and is described step-by-step below.
• Pit composting: material is layered in a dug pit rather than above ground; useful in hot, dry areas where a pit helps retain moisture, but requires good drainage to avoid waterlogging.
• Trench composting: material is buried directly in trenches between planting rows, decomposing in place and enriching the soil where crops will be planted; requires less turning but takes longer to mature.
• Vermicomposting: composting using earthworms to accelerate decomposition, producing a nutrient-rich product; requires more management but yields high-quality compost in a shorter time.

The heap method is described in detail below as it is the most accessible and widely applicable for smallholder farmers; the same core principles (balancing greens, browns, moisture, and aeration) apply across all methods.

Materials Required for a Compost Heap

A good compost heap requires three categories of materials: "Greens," "Browns," and "Activators." Greens are nitrogen-rich materials (fresh plant material, food waste, green leaves, fresh manure). Browns are carbon-rich materials (dry straw, dried leaves, crop stalks and residues). Activators are materials that accelerate decomposition (fresh animal manure, especially cow or chicken dung, soil, and water).

Step-by-Step Compost Construction

• Choose a shaded site (under a tree or shade net) close to a water source and accessible for turning. Shade prevents the heap from drying out too quickly.
• Layer 1, Brown base: Lay a 15cm layer of dry, coarse material directly on the ground. This base layer allows air to circulate from below.
• Layer 2, Green layer: Add a 10cm layer of green material (fresh plant cuttings, kitchen waste, fresh weeds, but not weeds that have gone to seed, as seeds survive composting and spread weeds).
• Layer 3, Activator: Spread a thin layer (3–5cm) of fresh animal manure, or a shovelful of old compost or garden soil. This introduces the microbial population that drives decomposition.
• Water: Sprinkle water over the heap until moist throughout, as moist as a wrung-out sponge, not dripping wet. Too much water excludes oxygen and causes slow, smelly anaerobic decomposition.
• Repeat layers: Continue alternating brown, green, and activator layers until the heap is 1–1.5 metres high, approximately 1.5m wide and 1.5m long, large enough to generate heat but manageable for turning.
• Cover: Cover the completed heap with dry grass or old sacks to retain moisture and moderate temperature.
• First turn (Day 14): Turn the heap with a fork or spade, moving material from the outside to the centre and vice versa. Check moisture, add water if dry, add more brown material if soggy.
• Second turn (Day 28): Turn again. The heap should now generate significant heat (warmth felt at the centre). This heat kills weed seeds and pathogens.
• Third turn (Day 42) and maturity check (Day 56–70): By 81 - 0 weeks, mature compost is dark brown-black, smells earthy, and original materials are no longer recognizable. Spread mature compost at 5–10 tonnes per hectare before planting.

Field Practical: Compost Heap Construction

Each participant group (4 - 6 people) constructs one compost heap at the training venue or a nearby demonstration plot.

Materials to prepare: dry straw/crop residue (one wheelbarrow), fresh green cuttings (one wheelbarrow), fresh cow or chicken manure (1 bucket), water (20 litres), garden soil (1 shovelful).

Time required: 30 - 40 minutes.

Observation: The trainer marks the heap with the construction date. At the Module 3 follow-up visit (Day 14), participants return to observe the first turn, check temperature, and assess moisture.

GEDSI note: Ensure compost turning activities are accessible for participants with physical limitations, provide chairs for observation and allow modified participation in physical components.

Why Compost Instead of Synthetic Fertilizer?

Both compost and synthetic fertilizer have a role in soil fertility management, and the two are not mutually exclusive. Key differences:

For most smallholder energy crop farmers, compost should form the foundation of soil fertility management, with synthetic fertilizer used selectively to address specific deficiencies identified through soil testing, an approach covered further under Integrated Soil Fertility Management (Section 3.4).

3.4 Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices

Climate-smart agriculture combines practices that increase productivity, build resilience to climate variability, and reduce environmental impact. The following practices are central to sustainable energy crop production.

Mulching

Mulching means covering the soil surface around plants with organic material, dry grass, crop residue, or leaves. It is one of the most powerful and underused soil management practices, particularly in areas where soil moisture loss through evaporation limits production.

Benefits include: reduction of soil evaporation by 30–50%; suppression of weed growth; moderation of soil temperature; gradual decomposition into organic matter; and reduced soil erosion during heavy rain. Apply mulch at a depth of 5–10cm around energy crops, keeping it 10–15cm from the plant stem to prevent crown rot and discourage termites.

Crop Rotation

Crop rotation means growing different crops in sequence on the same land across seasons. It breaks pest and disease cycles, improves soil nutrient balance (legumes add nitrogen; cereals consume it), and reduces the build-up of soil-borne pathogens. A general rotation principle for energy crop systems: alternate a nutrient-demanding crop (e.g. sugarcane, cassava) with a nitrogen-fixing legume (e.g. cowpeas, beans, soybean) at least once every 2–3 seasons.

Minimum Tillage

Minimum tillage reduces the frequency and intensity of soil disturbance, helping preserve soil structure, organic matter, and moisture. It is especially valuable in areas prone to erosion or moisture stress, though tillage requirements remain crop-specific (see Section on Land Preparation).

Drought-Tolerant Crop Selection

Selecting crop varieties bred or naturally adapted for drought tolerance, such as certain cassava and sorghum varieties, reduces production risk in areas with unreliable rainfall. Farmers should consult county extension services or KALRO for locally recommended drought-tolerant varieties.

Agroforestry

Integrating trees and shrubs into farming systems provides shade that reduces crop canopy temperature and evapotranspiration, improves soil structure through root systems and leaf litter, and can provide additional income (timber, fruit, fodder) or nitrogen fixation (with certain tree species). Agroforestry is particularly valuable for buffering energy crops against heat and moisture stress.

Efficient Irrigation

Where irrigation is used, efficiency matters as much as access. Practices include: applying water directly to the root zone (e.g. drip irrigation) rather than flood irrigation, to reduce losses to evaporation and runoff; scheduling irrigation based on crop growth stage and soil moisture rather than a fixed routine; and using harvested rainwater (see Section 3.5) as a supplementary irrigation source, applied efficiently rather than allowed to run off or evaporate.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

IPM combines cultural, biological, and where necessary, chemical methods to manage pests while minimizing chemical use and environmental impact. This is covered in detail in Module 4.

Weather-Informed Farming

Timely, localized weather information allows farmers to make better-informed decisions on planting, irrigation, and harvest timing. Farmers should be encouraged to access county or national meteorological service updates, weather alert SMS services where available, and to plant based on actual rainfall conditions (e.g. after a defined threshold of rainfall has fallen) rather than calendar dates alone.

Integrated Soil Fertility Management

Integrated soil fertility management combines organic inputs (compost, manure, crop residues) with judicious use of mineral fertilizer, guided by soil testing, to maintain both immediate crop nutrition and long-term soil health. This approach avoids over-reliance on either organic or synthetic inputs alone and should be tailored to the specific soil type and crop (see Section 3.2).

3.5 Water Harvesting Techniques

What is water harvesting?

Water harvesting is the deliberate collection, storage, and management of rainwater or runoff for productive use, rather than allowing it to be lost to evaporation or surface runoff. In semi-arid areas, and during dry spells in higher-rainfall areas, water harvesting can be the difference between a successful crop and crop failure.

Techniques and Their Suitability

Suitability depends on local rainfall pattern, catchment area, soil type, and available labour or capital for construction. Farmers should assess these factors, ideally with extension support, before selecting a technique.

3.6 Soil and Water Conservation Techniques

Distinct from primary water harvesting (which actively collects and stores water for use), soil and water conservation techniques primarily slow water movement across land, reducing erosion and improving in-situ infiltration.

Terracing and Contour Ridging

On sloped land, terraces and contour ridges slow the downhill flow of water, allowing it to infiltrate the soil rather than carrying topsoil away. Contour ridges are earthen ridges built across the slope, following the contour line (the line of equal elevation), typically at intervals of 10–20 metres depending on slope steepness. These are generally recommended on slopes greater than 5–8°, particularly for deep-rooted crops such as sugarcane.

Tied Ridges

Tied ridges are a system of furrows closed off at regular intervals by small earth dams ("ties"), forming a grid of water-holding basins across the field. This is a form of in-situ rainwater harvesting: water is held within the basins after rain and remains available to crops during dry spells between rain events, rather than being transported and stored separately as with water pans or dams.

Bridge to Module 4

MODULE 4: PEST, DISEASE, AND RISK MANAGEMENT

Duration: 1–4 hours Gap Response: Gap 4, verifying input authenticity; understanding IPM. Also introduces push-pull pest management using elephant grass.

4.1 Key Definitions

Pest: A living organism, insect, mite, rodent, bird, or other animal, that feeds on, damages, or otherwise reduces the yield and quality of a crop. Pests cause damage directly through feeding, boring, or physical destruction of plant tissue.

Disease: An abnormal condition in a plant caused by a pathogen (fungus, bacterium, virus, or nematode) or, less commonly, by non-living factors such as nutrient deficiency. Diseases disrupt the plant's normal physiological function and are often spread by a vector (an organism, frequently an insect pest, that transmits the pathogen from one plant to another).

Risk: The possibility of loss, damage, or reduced income arising from an uncertain future event, whether biological (pest or disease outbreak), climatic (drought or flood), or market-related (price collapse or buyer default). Risk management is the practice of identifying these threats in advance and putting mitigation measures in place before they occur.

Why the distinction matters: A pest is an organism you can usually see and act against directly (hand-picking, trapping, targeted spraying). A disease is caused by a pathogen you often cannot see directly, symptoms show up on the plant after infection has already occurred, so disease management relies far more heavily on prevention (clean planting material, resistant varieties, sanitation) than on after-the-fact treatment. Several of the diseases below are spread by pests (see CMD and CBSD, both transmitted by whitefly), which is why pest control and disease control are interconnected rather than separate jobs.

4.2 Pest Identification by Crop

4.3 Disease Identification by Crop

4.4 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an approach to pest control that combines multiple methods to reduce pest damage below economically damaging levels while minimizing chemical use and protecting the environment. The IPM hierarchy moves from prevention as the first priority to chemical control only as a last resort.

4.5 Disease Management

Because diseases cannot be treated once established in the plant the way a pest infestation can be sprayed, disease management is built almost entirely around prevention, sanitation, and vector control rather than curative action.

4.6 Push-Pull for Sorghum Stem Borer (Kajiado, Kisumu)

The push-pull system is a proven biological pest management strategy for sorghum stem borer, developed by ICIPE in Kenya and highly relevant for Kajiado and Kisumu farmers. The system works by planting a "push" crop (Desmodium, a leguminous cover crop) between sorghum rows to repel stem borer moths with its volatile chemicals, and a "pull" crop (elephant grass / Napier grass) on the field borders to attract moths away from the sorghum and trap them. Parasitic wasps also breed in Desmodium, attacking stem borer larvae.

The push-pull system reduces stem borer damage by 80–90% in field trials, eliminates the need for insecticide in many cases, and because Desmodium is nitrogen-fixing, also improves soil fertility. Elephant grass on the borders provides an additional biomass crop for briquette production.

4.7 Detecting Counterfeit Inputs

How to Identify Counterfeit Pesticides and Fertilizers

Counterfeit agricultural inputs are a serious problem in Kilifi, Kajiado, and remote parts of Kisumu. Using counterfeit pesticides can result in crop failure, health risks, and produce rejection by buyers.

1.       Check the PCPB number: All legitimate pesticides in Kenya must be registered with the Pest Control Products Board (PCPB). The registration number (e.g., PCPB(TP)CR4567) must appear on the label. Verify the number on the PCPB website or by phone.

2.       Check consistency: Legitimate pesticides have consistent colour, texture, and smell within a product line. Diluted or adulterated products often appear lighter in colour, less viscous, or smell different from the genuine product.

3.       Buy from registered agrodealers: Purchase inputs only from agrodealers licensed by the County Department of Agriculture. Ask to see the dealership licence. Avoid purchasing from mobile traders, informal markets, or individual sellers who cannot show source documentation.

4.       Report suspected counterfeits: Suspected counterfeit, unregistered, adulterated, or illegally sold pesticides should be reported to the nearest County Agriculture Office or directly to the Pest Control Products Board (PCPB) for investigation and appropriate action.

PCPB contact details:

•          By phone: +254 720 480 904 or +254 735 778 743

•          By email or online complaint form: via the PCPB official contact page (oprs.pcpb.go.ke)

•          In writing, or through the Board's official social media channels

The County Agriculture Office can assist with documentation and guidance on how to forward a complaint to PCPB, but PCPB is the body responsible for investigating and acting on counterfeit input cases. Many counterfeit operations have been shut down through farmer reporting.

4.8 Risk Identification and Classification

Beyond biological pests and diseases, farmers face several other categories of risk that can affect income even when the crop itself is healthy. Recognizing which category a risk falls into helps determine the right mitigation approach.

4.9 Risk Profiling and Management Plan

A simple risk profile helps a farmer or extension officer move from "knowing a risk exists" to "having a plan for it." For each risk, work through the following steps:

1. Identify the specific risk (e.g., "sorghum crop failure due to missed rains in Kajiado").
2. Assess likelihood, how probable is this risk in the target county and season (low / medium / high)?
3. Assess impact, if it occurs, how severe is the loss (low / medium / high)?
4. Prioritise, risks that are both high-likelihood and high-impact should be addressed first.
5. Assign a mitigation strategy, see the table below for county-relevant examples.
6. Assign responsibility, who monitors this risk and who acts if it materializes (farmer, cooperative, Practical Action county coordinator)?
7. Monitor and review, revisit the risk profile each season, since risk levels shift with weather patterns, market conditions, and input availability.

Risk Profile and Mitigation Table